The researchers discovered the iron minerals, called iron oxyhydroxides, by squishing mineral samples between two tiny diamond anvils while zapping them with a laser.

The two iron minerals are stable at the conditions found at the boundary between Earth's core and its mantle (the planet's middle layer), which is under "more than a million times the pressure we feel at the surface," Steve Jacobsen, a mineralogist and professor of Earth science at the University of Colorado Boulder who was not involved in the study, told Live Science in an email.

The new minerals contain as much as 15% water by weight. "If you add up all the H and O atoms in the formula and combine them into H2O, just a five-pound piece of the stuff would contain a pint of liquid water," Jacobsen added. "If this material existed in the early Earth, spread out across the base of the mantle, even just a few percent of it would potentially be enough to supply the formation of the oceans."

A tectonic mystery

Earth contains multiple layers, like an onion. The crust is the thinnest layer (the onion skin), and it moves around very slowly on top of a giant ocean of molten rock called the mantle (the juicy part of the onion). Deep in the heart of that ocean is the planet's core, like an onion's center, if the center of the onion were made of superheated iron and nickel crushed under the weight of a planet.

Water in the mantle makes the molten rock stretchier, which means the mantle can change its shape and convect. That's a big part of why Earth has plate tectonics ‪—‬ without water in the mantle, the material is too stiff to move around and drag the planet's crust with it. We know there's water in the mantle; however, we don't know exactly what the water in the mantle is doing.

There are two main theories for how water gets into Earth's mantle. The first is through subduction: When one tectonic plate sinks under another, it brings water from the surface into the mantle. The second is primordial water, left over from the planet's formation, that's stored near the boundary between Earth's core and the lower mantle.

The newly discovered minerals match both major theories for how Earth got its mantle water. They're dense enough to sink all the way to the bottom of the mantle, which fits with subduction and provides a way for water to enter Earth's core. The iron minerals are also strong enough to withstand the extremely high-energy impacts that they would have experienced if they were present while Earth was forming.

The mantle's convection could bring these minerals from near the core to close to the surface in large mantle plumes, where the minerals would melt and release their water, thus completing the water cycle in the mantle and contributing to volcanic hotspots at the surface. This process has implications for water cycles and theories of how other rocky planets and exoplanets ‪—‬ especially the weird ones that are mostly molten rock ‪—‬ formed.

Although the study, published Sept. 8 in the journal Nature Geoscience, doesn't prove that these minerals are taxiing water around the mantle, knowing that the iron minerals exist provides a pathway for the first time. The newly discovered minerals might also explain mysterious, extremely dense regions deep inside Earth ‪—‬the "ultra-low seismic velocity patches we see sitting on top of the core-mantle boundary," Jacobsen added.

What is Earth made of? Find out with our inside Earth quiz!

'> Newly discovered iron minerals might hold primordial water from when Earth formed

The tomb, which has a pyramid-shaped roof, dates to the fourth century, when the Roman Empire controlled Egypt. A team found it in the Dakhla Oasis, near ancient Mothis (modern-day Mut), a prominent city in the oasis.

Built for a husband and wife, the tomb has a stone plaque containing a 19-line poem written in ancient Greek, representatives of the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities said in a translated statement. The deceased man was named Pisechtes and may have been a judge. However, the statement didn't mention the discovery of any human remains at the site.

The tomb also has hieroglyphic inscriptions that record spells meant to protect the deceased. Some of the inscriptions mention parts of the "Amduat," a text that tells the story of the sun god's journey through the underworld.

Archaeologists also discovered an offering table, a purification basin, pottery and at least one coin that depicts the Roman emperor Constantine the Great, who ruled the Roman Empire from A.D. 306 to 337. Constantine famously legalized Christianity and converted to the religion shortly before his death. There do not seem to be any Christian decorations or texts inside the tomb.

Fourteen steps lead down to the tomb entrance, which is decorated with a variety of images, including a winged sun disk, an image of the god Osiris and two cobras, according to the statement.

"Listen, father!"

The inscribed stone plaque contains a lament for the deceased written in ancient Greek. Angelos Chaniotis, a researcher at the Institute for Advanced Study in New Jersey who was not involved in the excavation, said this "is a highly literary and original epigram" with grammar similar to that of Homer's famous epics.

In the short poem, the deceased is praised for his kindness and wisdom and called an "advisor in life." In the last lines, Pisechtes' son Sarapion "addresses his father, 'Listen father!', and asks him to accept the funerary libations and offerings of lamenting children," Chaniotis told Live Science in an email.

"An interesting feature of the inscription is the use of diacritical marks" such as accents, Chaniotis said. "This is an indication of the high level of education of the author of the epigram."

The tomb may have been reused at a later time, according to the statement, since a mud-brick shrine above the tomb entrance was likely erected after Pisechtes and his wife were buried.

Live Science contacted the archaeological team but had not heard back by the time of publication.

Are you a fan of mummies and hieroglyphs? Find out with our ancient Egypt quiz!

'> 'Listen, father!': 1,700-year-old tomb discovered in Egypt contains a poem in ancient Greek and spells to protect the dead

The tallest and most powerful rocket ever built blasted off from SpaceX's Starbase in Boca Chica, Texas on Monday (Sept. 28) at 8.49 a.m. ET (7.49 a.m. local time).

Soon after launch, one of Starship's 33 engines failed. A tense few minutes followed while the mission team deliberated over whether the mission should continue to orbit. Eventually, the call came through: "Go for orbit."

A short fire of Starship's boosters nudged the rocket into orbit, where it zoomed around Earth at a highest point of 170 miles (275 kilometers) above the planet's surface.

However, after successfully deploying 26 Starlink V3 satellites, SpaceX decided not to leave Starship up in space for the remainder of the mission, which was originally expected to last 10 hours.

The rocket splashed down in the Pacific Ocean after 3 hours and 8 minutes, and then promptly exploded with a fiery bang. An explosive landing was always expected for Starship, and there were audible cheers during that part of the SpaceX livestream of the mission, but SpaceX would have probably preferred to have kept its rocket intact — like it did on Flight 13.

SpaceX called this mission, Starship's Flight 14, the company's "most ambitious launch to date" during its livestream. Prior to this launch, Starship had only flown suborbitally, and this was SpaceX's first attempt to send its flagship rocket into orbit. The company said reaching orbit represents the "next phase" for Starship toward becoming a fully reusable rocket.

Starship flight 14

The day started with promise for SpaceX: Engineers weren't tracking any holds in the lead-up to launch; tanking and launch progressed smoothly; and Starship served up some spectacular images of Earth as it raced into space.

Shortly after launch, Starship's booster separated and safely splashed down in the Gulf of Mexico. Then the problems started. Starship had lost one of its engines. Initially, commentary on SpaceX's livestream suggested that officials planned to abandon the push for orbit, but after several tense minutes, they confirmed the attempt was a go.

The latest mission had a few objectives. In addition to making it to orbit, SpaceX deployed Starlink V3 satellites, designed to boost the speeds and reliability of the internet services provided by its satellite megaconstellation.

The mission also tested the Starship's booster, which had experienced some hardware and software modifications after Flight 13.

SpaceX has experienced multiple setbacks with Starship. The seventh and eighth Starship test flights exploded and rained fiery debris from the sky. The ninth flight fell short of its target, and a Starship exploded on the launchpad during a routine test leading up to the 10th mission. However, Starship did end up having a successful 10th flight in August 2025, despite taking some damage, and its 11th run, in October, was clean.

The last two flights, in March and July 2026, saw successful launches and controlled landings but experienced booster problems.

To the moon?

The stakes are high for the rocket: Starship's success could be essential for NASA's plans to return humans to the moon in early 2028. The U.S. space agency needs a commercial lunar lander to ferry astronauts to the lunar surface during the upcoming Artemis IV mission. (Artemis III, a practice attempt above Earth, is slated for 2027.)

NASA wants to take astronauts to the moon in its Orion spacecraft, as tested in the Artemis II mission. Once in lunar orbit, the crew is then supposed to rendezvous with a commercial lander, which will take the astronauts to the surface and launch them back up to Orion for the trip home.

SpaceX has been developing a moon-landing variant of its Starship for that job. With rival Blue Origin (whose New Glenn rocket dramatically exploded in May) lagging behind, the Artemis program's success could be tied to Starship's.

During Artemis III next summer, NASA will test docking Orion with one or both of its commercial lander options in low Earth orbit. The space agency has made clear that lander readiness will determine which commercial provider gets to take astronauts to the lunar surface as soon as 2028.

There are some doubts about whether NASA will be ready by then. But today's Starship issues also leave key questions about whether SpaceX can meet the tight deadline.

'> SpaceX's Starship reaches orbit for the first time, then returns early and explodes

The spacecraft, known as USA 32 or Farrah III, was launched by the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) in 1988. Its mission, which was only fully declassified earlier this year, was to intercept Soviet radar and radio signals from space, according to Futura. The cylindrical spacecraft, whose shape has been described as a giant "tuna can," likely stopped functioning decades ago and has been silently circling Earth ever since. (It was nicknamed after actor Farrah Fawcett, in line with the NRO's former custom of naming its satellites after famous figures from the 1970s and '80s.)

On Sept. 17, Space-Track — the satellite observation arm of the U.S. Space Force — announced that USA 32 suffered a sudden "fragmentation" event four days earlier, on Sept. 13. This essentially means the spacecraft exploded, potentially breaking apart into dozens, hundreds or even thousands of pieces. However, the agency did not specify what had caused this explosion or how many pieces of debris were created. And, as of Sept. 28, no one else has been able to answer either question.

Other organizations have since confirmed the fragmentation event, including the private satellite-tracking company s2a systems, which photographed the largest remaining piece of USA 32 in orbit.

The explosion occurred 480 miles (775 kilometers) above Earth's surface, according to Spaceweather.com. Considering the satellite's speed, the resulting debris likely spread into a giant ring around Earth within 24 hours after the spacecraft's sudden breakup, a simulation from the website suggests.

What happened to USA 32?

It is still unclear what happened to the Cold War-era spacecraft, but there are several potential explanations.

Collisions with other satellites or smaller pieces of space junk are one of the most common causes of satellite breakups. But no one has reported any other spacecraft being impacted, and researchers can often predict potential space junk collisions days or weeks in advance, making these scenarios unlikely. However, it is possible that an undetected space rock struck the satellite at high speeds instead.

Another leading theory is that the satellite died of old age. It was likely not designed for long-term spaceflight, and after nearly four decades of being exposed to the harsh conditions of LEO, the spy craft may have simply broken down, similar to the demise of the NOAA-17 satellite in 2021.

"Old spacecraft carry batteries and leftover propellant," Spaceweather.com representatives wrote. "After 38 years of heating and cooling, a pressurized tank or a battery cell on USA 32 may have simply ruptured."

But it is also too soon to rule out that the satellite was hit by some form of anti-satellite weaponry, according to Spaceweather.com. Earlier this month, U.S. Air Force Secretary Troy E. Meink revealed, for the first time, that the U.S. had launched unspecified weapons into orbit, and experts have long suspected that other countries, including China and Russia, possess similar technologies. (The latter country has already destroyed one satellite using Earth-based weaponry.)

However, there is currently no evidence that anti-satellite weapons were used in this instance, so "there may be nothing sinister about this event," Spaceweather.com representatives wrote.

Researchers will likely be able to establish the cause of the satellite's breakup by reverse-engineering the incident ‪—‬ first by identifying the resulting fragments, and then by retracing those pieces' trajectories back to the original explosion. However, this could take months, if not years. (For example, scientists are still trying to piece together what happened to the Boeing-made Intelsat 33e satellite, which similarly shattered out of nowhere in 2024.)

"The collision threat is real"

Regardless of the recent explosion's cause, experts are now concerned about the potential knock-on effects of its fallout.

The region of LEO where USA 32 exploded is thought to be home to at least 200 other satellites, and it is already littered with debris from a 2009 collision between American and Russian satellites. As a result, "the collision threat is real" for spacecraft in this area, Spaceweather.com representatives wrote, especially as the newly created fragments remain unquantified.

So far, the incident has not caused any issues or affected the launch of new spacecraft. For example, Russia went ahead with the Sept. 16 launch of a resupply mission to the International Space Station (ISS), which orbits about 250 miles (400 km) above our planet, or roughly half the exploded satellite's altitude. (SpaceX also launched classified missions for the U.S. Space Force on Sept. 16 and Sept. 26, and it launched the first orbital test flight of its supersize Starship rocket on Sept. 28.)

Although the ISS and China's Tiangong space station are currently out of reach of the debris field, the fragments may shift over time as Earth's gravity and atmospheric drag pull them closer to our planet. In that case, the stations may have to carry out maneuvers to dodge the debris, as they have done dozens of times before.

Could it happen again?

As LEO becomes increasingly crowded with newly launched spacecraft, the risk that they will smash into one another or get struck by space junk has also shot up, which strongly suggests that this will not be the last fragmentation event.

Additionally, the longer these new spacecraft remain in orbit, the higher the chances they'll break apart suddenly due to accumulated wear and tear, as USA 32 may have. Previous research has also shown that if satellites were knocked offline, either due to a software malfunction or a powerful solar storm, they could start crashing into one another within days. And there's also the threat that they could be destroyed by anti-satellite weaponry —‬ a scenario that "worries" Live Science readers.

Some experts warn that, if we continue on our current path, we may be doomed to reach an irreversible tipping point, known as the Kessler syndrome, where the accumulation of space junk means we can no longer launch anything into space.

'> US Cold War-era spy satellite explodes above Earth — and nobody knows why

Launched on Aug. 30, the space telescope has already released its first images before its 300-megapixel camera is fully calibrated, capturing clusters of stars as blurry green rings. Once Roman's Wide Field Instrument is fully functional, the telescope should produce images as crisp as those from the Hubble Space Telescope but encompassing an area 100 times larger in each snap, NASA has stated. Experts hope to use these images to uncover more information about dark energy and possible habitable exoplanets.

With Roman's first test images now published, we asked our readers what they're most excited about with this new space telescope.

Over 270 readers responded, with the largest voting group, 57%, picking "Habitable exoplanets" as their response.

When talking about the possibility of life on other planets, one reader commented, "I'm sure the telescope will find plenty of new worlds outside our solar system, and a fair amount in habitable zones as well, but on if these planets have life of any sort I can't imagine any space telescope will [be] able to detect any signs."

Following behind this majority, 27% of readers chose "The possible source of dark energy." One reader reflected their interest in dark energy by writing, "Since dark matter and dark energy seem to make up most of our Universe, it seems imperative that we at least know SOMETHING about them. Except that they exist."

Another commenter echoed this statement, writing, "Dark energy and dark matter, according to our current knowledge, composes the majority of the mass of the Universe yet we are not really sure what they are and exactly what their influence is on our Universe. That is a huge gap in our knowledge base. It is not something that would be good to know, it is something we must know before we go where no man has gone before."

The smallest voting group, representing 9% of respondents, admitted, "I don't know, but I will use its pictures for my desktop wallpaper." If you fall into that group, we recommend checking out our Space Photo of the Week and Earth from Space series to get more image options for all your devices.

'> 'It is something we must know before we go where no man has gone before': Readers react to NASA's Roman telescope mission